Since the beginning of time, the world has witnessed a significant number of formidable empires. Regrettably, not all of them have received the equal attention they deserve in our historical records. We all know about the Roman Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, the Han Dynasty, the Ottoman Empire, and many others. But there are also some mighty empires that merit serious consideration for their remarkable accomplishments, and thus deserve the same attention in our global educational curriculum.

The decline of Alexander the Great’s empire in 321 BCE, which led to a 40-year period of war and chaos, signalled the end of his reign, and a new one was gaining momentum in the region now known as India. It was an empire that covered most of the Indian region and parts of modern-day Iran. This empire would become famous for its ability to keep peace and political harmony in large parts of Asia and for setting up a unified economic system that allowed stable agriculture, trade, and commerce. The name of that empire is the Maurya Empire.   

It’s possible to argue that, despite not garnering the same acclaim as the empire established by Alexander the Great, the Mauryan empire nonetheless boasted one of the world’s most significant civilizations. But unlike Alexander’s empire, the Maurya empire was thought to be bigger than its founders.   

The origins of the Maurya empire can be traced back to Chandragupta Maurya, who established it in the year 321 CE. Even though there aren’t many details about Chandragupta’s life before he started the Maurya empire, there are many stories about how he came to power.   

Chandragupta Maurya 

Many aspects of Chandragupta’s life and origins are still unknown. The majority of information regarding Chandragupta is derived primarily from legends and folklore rather than actual historical sources. According to Indian historian K.A. Sastri, Chandragupta is only referred to in the Junagarh inscription of the 2nd century CE. (Singh, 330.) K.A. Sastri observes:

Chandragupta’s social upbringing, particularly his caste, remains the subject of debate. There are different versions of his story in Buddhist, Jain, and ancient literary works. 

According to reports, Chandragupta was born in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar in 340 BC and ascended the throne in 321 BC. Some historians claim that he was the son of a chief and that his family had been left destitute after his father’s death. 

He is referred to in various ways as belonging to the Kshatriya Moriya clan, which governs Pipphalivana on the present-day Indo-Nepal border, as a descendant of a tribe of peacock-tamers, a son of a woman named Mura (hence the title, Maurya), and even being closely or distantly related to the Nandas. However, he was reprimanded and expelled from the land due to Dhanananda jealous of his superior talents.

Historians are divided about Chandragupta’s social origins. Several historians assert that “he appears to have belonged to a common family” and that “he was not a prince, but a mere commoner without any direct claim to the crown of Magadha. Other historians argue that Chandragupta was, in fact, a member of the Moriya or Maurya clan, which by the 4th century BCE had hit rough times, and thus Chandragupta “grew up among peacock-tamers, herdsmen, and hunters.” 

Justin, a Roman historian from the 2nd century CE, talks about his humble beginnings in his writings. He is mentioned in Buddhist texts and medieval inscriptions as a kshatriya. Thus, it is possible to speculate that he belonged to a Kshatriya (ruler/warrior caste) or a related caste, as the Brahmin Kautilya, adhering to the caste rules, would not have favoured him otherwise.

Chandragupta’s Early Beginnings with his mentor Chanakya

Chandragupta was reputed to possess a high level of ambition and sought avenues and means to attain a position of power or even a throne. This desire could have been easily triggered by his early circumstances. He aspired to resurrect the deplorable fortunes of his clan and reclaim his deserved position as a Kshatriya ruler.

Regardless of whether the version positing his connection to Dhanananda is accepted, it is certain that Chandragupta’s intention would have persisted in his thoughts, and he would have aspired to attain the status of a prince. Even though he came from a fairly ordinary background, Chandragupta didn’t think his upbringing had anything to do with his political aspirations. It is therefore very likely that Chandragupta, as a young man, had involved himself in the endeavour of fulfilling his ambitions.

Some historians claim Chandragupta’s early beginnings began when his maternal uncles offered him a cow-herding job, but he ended up working for a hunter as a cattle-herder. Another legend states that he was allegedly acquired by a politician named Chanakya, and it is believed that he accumulated significant expertise under his guidance. Another version of the narrative states that Chanakya came across Chandragupta by chance and entrusted him to his care. Various sources suggest that Chandragupta was the illegitimate son of a prince or king of the Nanda Dynasty. Some people believe that his name comes from the Moriya warrior clan, which lives between Kasia in Uttar Pradesh and Rummindel in Tarai Nepal.   

Despite the abundance of information regarding Chandragupta from various scholars, it is evident that Chandragupta’s ominous absence from historical records signifies a more humble beginning, irrespective of the circumstances of his upbringing.

As time went by, Chanakya realized that Chandragupta had the qualities needed to be a good leader. He knew he could do great things and taught him everything he knew about politics, finance, and warfare. It was later revealed that Chanakya cultivated Chandragupta into a competent leader by instilling in him the virtues of humility and ethical conduct.

Chandragupta, according to legend, was aware that if he wanted to ascend to power, he would have to wage war against the established kingdoms. He therefore focused on obtaining military training and experience. It is no coincidence that the Maurya Empire grew after Alexander died, and the leaders of these empires are in many ways connected.

According to both Greek and Latin historians, Chandragupta had the opportunity to meet Alexander the Great and possibly obtained his permission to join his army. This experience allowed Chandragupta to acquire knowledge of the Macedonian method of warfare and its potential application against the tactics of ancient Indian warfare, in addition to his own military training. In a passage from Plutarch’s literary work entitled “Life of Alexander,” Androcottus, the Latin name for Chandragupta, is mentioned. He recounts that Androcottus, who was then a young man, witnessed Alexander himself.

It is believed that Chandragupta visited Alexander to enlist his help in overthrowing a certain tyrant. Several accounts indicate that the meeting didn’t go as planned, with Chandragupta observing the Macedonian ruler as equally oppressive as the one he hoped to overthrow.    

Alexander was dissatisfied with the manner in which Chandragupta perceived tyrants, and therefore he directed his execution. The meeting turned disastrous, and Chandragupta was forced to flee in fear for his life. 

Some historians think that Chandragupta, who lived in the Magadhan kingdom at that time, couldn’t have gone all the way to the north-west to meet Alexander. Rather, it is possible that he may have encountered the ruler of the Nanda dynasty by the name of Dhana Nanda and sought to enlist in his military. They believe that Plutarch and other scholars may have referred to Alexander incorrectly, referring to him as Dhanananda. Nonetheless, all historians do not universally acknowledge this viewpoint.

Regardless of Chandragupta’s initial actions in his career, it can be affirmed with certainty that he had a strong connection with the statesman-philosopher Chanakya. He was his best friend, teacher, and guide. He influenced Chandragupta’s career and how he ran the Mauryan empire. Chanakya, on the other hand, was determined to take the lead in reviving and reshaping the Indian political system.

Despite being originally from Magadha, Chanakya was a student and later a teacher at Takshashila (present-day Taxila in Pakistan). As a result, he was a witness to the political turmoil that was triggered in north-western India due to the Macedonian invasion. This inspired him to consider establishing a centralized pan-Indian empire that would keep invaders at bay and restore order. The existence of many republics and kingdoms, divided and constantly at war with each other, was incompatible, despite obvious reasons.

Chanakya thought Magadha was a good choice for the empire. Dhanananda expressed his disapproval, and Chanakya decided to eliminate him, despite his prior position of power. Chanakya believed that Magadha was the sole territorial entity capable of bringing order amid the chaos. It possessed an unrivalled military capability, which was pivotal for the establishment of the kind of empire that Chanakya desired. Another rationale behind Chanakya’s decision to select Magadha as an empire was its protection by its extensive military, which provided it with a level of stability that was unmatched by other kingdoms.  Chanakya was, therefore, determined to place Magadha at the center of his plan, regardless of whether he was governed by the Nandas or by another entity. Thus, he decided it was time to usher in a new world order that would ensure harmony and security by substituting Dhanananda for a more capable and superior contender. The person chosen was Chandragupta Maurya. 

Chanakya helped Chandragupta prepare for taking over Magadha by mentoring him. Chandragupta’s own abilities were thus refined in the realms of warfare, diplomacy, and covert operations. Despite the threat of death, he persevered and eventually ascended the ranks of authority.

The battle for supremacy in India

It is generally acknowledged by the majority of historians that Chandragupta Maurya possessed the qualities of a natural leader. He was highly regarded for his charisma and fortitude, particularly by Chanakya, a scholar of the Brahmin faith who harboured resentment towards the Nanda Empire, which ruled the northern region of India. Chanakya nurtured Chandragupta’s aspirations for greatness and instilled in him the desire to overthrow the Nanda Empire. As the influence of Alexander the Great diminished in the region, Chandragupta commenced to consolidate additional land and territory.   

Chandragupta, firmly seated in the imperial seat, devoted his attention towards extending his authority. The Mauryan armies extended their reach to the Indian Ocean and southern India, notably the present-day state of Karnataka. Plutarch states that Chandragupta commanded an army of 600,000. At that time, the Mauryan empire included the present-day states of Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, and western and north-western India, as well as the Deccan. In the north-west, they exercised dominion over certain regions that were not included within the boundaries of the British Empire. It’s worth noting that the extreme southern and eastern regions of India were not included in the empire.

When Alexander the Great passed away in the year 323 BCE, an opportunity arose. Even though Alexander’s Bactrian wife, Roxana, was pregnant at his passing, there was no viable successor, and Alexander’s vast empire was the subject of internal discord among his generals.   

The discord within Alexander’s empire due to his passing created a massive power vacuum in the area, and Chandragupta was charismatic enough to capitalize on it. After the departure of the final representative of Alexander from India, Chandragupta gradually expanded into the Punjab region and assumed the role of ruler in 322 BCE. He didn’t stop there, though, as that was only the beginning of his dominance.

Soon after, he made a big group of army and joined forces with a king named Porus (Purushotama). This king was the same one who fought with Alexander the Great in a battle called the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BCE.

Since Chandragupta had consolidated authority over central India, his primary objective was to advance towards the Magadha heartland and seize it. As Chandragupta had the backing of King Porus, the unified forces of Chandragupta and King Porus then proceeded towards Magadha with the aim of capturing Nanda, a feat commonly referred to as the conquest of the Nanda Empire.  

Chandragupta knew that fighting Magadha would require more than just a big army, so he chose to fight by other means. He engaged in numerous intrigues, counter-intrigues, plotting and counter-plotting, all in an attempt to weaken the Nanda Empire’s ruler, Dhana Nanda, by removing his key allies, loyalists, and supporters, including his chief minister, Rakshasa. The Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa (“The Ring of Rakshasa”), written by Vishakhadatta sometime between the 4th and 8th centuries CE (possibly the 5th century CE), provides vivid recollections of the same. 

Chandragupta, employing both military and non-military tactics, secured the throne of the Nanda capital of Pataliputra and occupied it.  In the year 321 BCE, Chandragupta and his troops seized control of the Nanda capital, Pataliputra and successfully concluded the conflict. This defeat brought an end to the Nanda Empire. Their leader, Dhana Nanda, may have escaped or been killed.

The Mauryan Empire was Born

At the age of twenty, Chandragupta Maurya established his kingdom. This is how the Maurya Empire was created. After achieving victory through force, Chandragupta retained power through an efficient administration and established a Secret Service, which assisted in eliminating the sources of Nanda’s power.  From that point forward, he continued to expand his reach by acquiring territories, either through force or through alliances. Chandragupta expanded the empire’s borders to Persia, sparking a clash with a flourishing empire led by one of Alexander’s generals, Seleucus I Nicator. 

Chandragupta encountered a conflict with Seleucus I Nicator, Alexander’s successor in the east, with the objective of reducing the Greek power and gaining autonomy and strength. But the conflict did not last long, as it ended in 303 BCE by the signing of a peace treaty.  

The conflict came to an end with a peace agreement, wherein Chandragupta presented Seleucus with a gift of five hundred elephants. As a sign of gratitude, Seleucus Nicator gave Chandragupta three areas: Arachosia (the area near Kandahar in Afghanistan), Gedrosia (the southern part of Pakistan) and Paropamisadai (the area between Afghanistan and India). The legend also states that Seleucus may have given his daughter Helena to Chandragupta in marriage, despite the lack of historical evidence to support this theory. 

The Mauryan and Greek nations established diplomatic relations, and many Greek ambassadors, including the historian Megasthenes, devoted time to the Indian court. These emissaries gave the Maurya Empire many books from other countries, including some from their people. Some renowned literary works concerning the Maurya Empire include Megasthenes Indika, Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa, Chanakya’s Arthashastra, the Purana, and numerous Buddhist texts. 

How the Mauryan Empire performed under Chandragupta

Under Chandragupta’s reign, a complex system of imperial administration was established. Even though he was responsible for most of the empire’s affairs, he was helped by his council of ministers. The empire was arranged into provinces, headed by princes as viceroys. The royals were able to gain the necessary administrative expertise, especially the one who went on to become emperor. The provinces were subdivided into smaller units, and arrangements were devised for both urban and rural administration. 

Archaeological evidence has been found to support the existence of several of these towns and cities. Out of all of them, the most well-known was the capital city of Pataliputra. It was administered by six committees with five members each. Among their duties were the maintenance of sanitation facilities, care for foreigners, birth and death registration, and regulation of weights and measures. Furthermore, the central government maintained approximately two dozen departments responsible for various social and economic activities.

In addition, the military of the Mauryan Empire exhibited exceptional capabilities during that period, largely due to Chandragupta’s leadership. The state systematically recruited, trained, and equipped troops (maula). Many forest tribes and communities were known for their military abilities and were highly valued. There were also large numbers of mercenaries, as did corporate guilds of soldiers, and they were recruited whenever required. The army had four types of soldiers: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants. In addition to the various arms, there was a 30-member war office made up of six boards that looked after the navy and transport department. 

According to the writings of the Roman writer Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE), Chandragupta possessed a fleet of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants. The estimated number of chariots was 8,000. The commanders decided how they would deploy in the field of battle in formation, depending on the terrain and the composition of the enemies and their forces. 

Great care was given to the training of men and animals. The king and princes were well-versed in battle and leadership. It was expected of them to exhibit courage, and they frequently led their armies personally and actively participated in the defence of forts. The navy, however, was established by Chandragupta and primarily served as a coast guard and safeguarded the extensive trade that was being transported on the waterways of the empire.

Some weapons employed in warfare comprised of bows and arrows, swords, double-handed broadswords, oval, rectangular or bell-shaped shields (often made of hide), javelins, lances, axes, pikes, clubs, and maces. The Mauryan Soldiers tended to be bare-chested or wore cotton jackets with quilting. Some scholars also pointed out that they wore tightly coiled turbans, often secured with scarves tied below the chin, and cloth bands tied around their waists and chests as shields. Tunics were commonly worn during winter. The lower garment consisted of a loose cloth that was worn as a kilt or in the drawer style, with one end of the garment being drawn between the legs and tucked in the waist at the rear.

The Mauryans had a massive military, which was helped by the size of the empire and the resources it had. The state effectively possessed complete control over all economic activities, thereby enabling it to command a substantial revenue stream and an abundance of financial resources.

Chandragupta left behind a legacy that has survived in the pages of the Arthashastra. He not only conquered all obstacles to establish a formidable empire, but he also established solid guidelines for its management and dedicated himself to its expansion. These achievements made him one of the best rulers in ancient India and a figure in folklore that is almost mythical. Unfortunately, as nature would have it, Chandragupta passed away in 297 BCE. Even after he died, India was almost united, and the Mauryan Empire spanned from the Himalayas and Kabul River Valley to the Vindhya mountains.   

To enhance the accomplishments of this once great Indian ruler, Chandragupta placed greater emphasis on the well-being of his people than on acquiring power. He regarded everyone equally, and he was well-liked and respected by most people. 

There were instances where his kingdom was afflicted by famine, and he was compelled to demonstrate his solidarity with his people by fasting, ultimately succumbing to starvation. Even if the circumstances of Chandragupta’s death are not fully understood. It is possible that he may have succumbed to starvation as a result of his fasting. According to the Digambara legend, Chandragupta fasted to death after living as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years.

Chandragupta’s achievements were not confined to his achievements, and a significant portion of his political success was credited to his mentor and advisor, Chanakya. 

Mauryan Empire after Chandragupta reign

The governing structure of the Maurya Empire was a shining example of a well-organized and efficient administration. After the demise of Chandragupta, his offspring, Bindusara, assumed the role of the new ruler, receiving the prestigious title and inheriting a stable and economically viable kingdom. 

Bindusara kept growing the empire and got a Greek name called “Amitrochates.” This name came from the Sanskrit word “Amitraghāta,” which means “Slayer of all enemies.”  

As time went on, bindusara was also capable of upholding his father’s empire, but it is widely believed that the pinnacle of the empire was achieved under the reign of his son, Ashoka, who earned the title of “the Great.”  Ashoka was referred to as “the great” due to his exemplary leadership of peace and kindness, which aided in uniting diverse cultures under a single government. After Bindusara passed away, his sons fought for many years to choose who would become the leader. Ashoka was victorious and assumed the position of Maurya Empire in the year 265 or 268 BCE.  

Ashoka the Great

Eight years after he assumed power, Ashoka began a violent expansion of the empire, which made the Mauryas the largest geographical area in the world. His most successful military operation was against the island nation of Kalinga. 

Ashoka’s victory caused 100,000 to 300,000 people to die because of the military invasion and conquests. The legacy of his triumph would forever damage Ashoka’s reputation and the stature of the Mauryan Empire. 

The heinous acts of murder, destruction, and expulsion that occurred during the conquest of an unconquered nation left Ashoka in deep mourning.  He pledged never to employ force to invade any territory to prevent anyone’s demise. As time passed, Ashoka remained true to his declaration and abstained from any form of violence, eventually becoming a patron of Buddhism. His support for the Buddhist faith was instrumental in facilitating the spread and expansion of Buddhism throughout India.  

Ashoka renounced military conquest in the end, opting instead for a policy he called “conquest by dharma,” a religious and moral code based on generosity, non-violence, and truthfulness. Besides communicating his intentions verbally, Ashoka also etched them into stone. To raise public awareness of his actions and words, he crafted drawings on rocks and pillars that depicted his thoughts and actions during his tenure in power.  

One of Ashoka’s most renowned pillars can still be observed at Sarnath, which is widely believed to be the location of Buddha’s first sermon concerning the four noble truths. The pillar remains in its original position. The top section of the column, which has since become the national symbol of India, is on display at the Sarnath Museum. 

Ashoka embraced diversity in faith and allowed his people to live and worship as they pleased.  Even though he encouraged people to work hard to improve their inner worthiness, he kept a high level of respect for others and didn’t criticize other points of view. His main rules were to be honest, kind, and helpful.  He embraced a policy of non-violence, and he established hospitals for both humans and animals.

Ashoka emphasized the importance of public infrastructure and the inherent value of public spaces. He directed the planting of trees and groves along the roadside, the excavation of wells, and the construction of rest houses and watering sheds. 

Ashoka often travelled the country to spread the message of dharma and help the people in the countryside. He urged his staff to follow the same approach, considering the unique needs of women and those living in less populated areas. He urged the public to voice their concerns, arguing that talking to people was more effective than just giving orders. 

In his words, Ashoka famously said, “All men are my children, and as for my children, I wish that they may be provided with all the welfare and happiness of this world and the next, so do I wish for all men as well.” 

Ashoka ruled for a period of nearly forty years and subsequently passed away in the year 238 BCE. His death was the beginning of the end for the Maurya Empire. 

The fall of the Maurya Empire

After the death of Ashoka, a period of political decline followed, and the empire began to shrink as a result of persistent invasions and internal disaffection. This once formidable empire, which was recollected in all its splendour, later faded into historical obscurity. The Maurya Empire, according to certain historians, was carved into two distinct parts, and it’s generally believed that Ashoka’s son, Kunala, ruled in Gandhara. In addition, there is evidence that Dasharatha, Ashoka’s great-grandson, ruled in Magadha. 

In the year 185 BCE, Brihadratha, the last emperor of Maurya, was killed by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga.  It transpired that Pushyamitra Shunga was a highly religious Brahmin who disapproved of Brihadratha rule due to his belief that it was out of order. 

All signs show that Ashoka’s children stayed true to their father’s beliefs and continued to believe in Buddhism. Their non-violent approach had resulted in numerous invasions by foreign forces.

During Brihadratha’s reign, the Vedic Religion was beginning to be replaced by Buddhism, which did not sit well with Pushyamitra. When the Greeks invaded and Brihadratha refused to engage in combat, Pushyamitra defied the king’s orders and launched an attack against both the Greeks and Buddhists. He executed 300 Greeks and brought the Buddhists before Brihadratha, anticipating praise for his decisive actions. Instead, Brihadratha expelled Pushyamitra from the court for his conduct. After a heated discussion, Pushyamitra executed Brihadratha and proclaimed himself king. 

When the Greeks invaded and Brihadratha refused to engage in combat, Pushyamitra defied the king’s directives and launched an attack against both the Greeks and Buddhists. He executed 300 Greeks and brought the Buddhists before Brihadratha, expecting praise for his decisive actions. 

Rather, Brihadratha expelled Pushyamitra from the court owing to his conduct. After a heated debate, Pushyamitra killed Brihadratha his master, who happened to be the last Mauryan king, and declared himself king.  However, the Buddhist book Divyavadana says that Pushyamitra was the last king of Maurya. This assertion is not accurate, as it appears that the text may have misconstrued Brihadratha with Pushyamitra.

Moving on, Pushyamitra and his army created the Shunga Empire and took back many kingdoms that had been part of the Maurya Empire. 

In summary, the Maurya Empire’s culture of non-violence and peacefulness, which was set by one of its leaders, Ashoka, was both its greatest triumph and its biggest failure.

The surrounding kingdoms and foreigners took advantage of the Maurya Empire’s peaceful attitude, and soon the people started to see their once merciful approach as passive. If today’s leaders followed Ashoka’s example, we can only imagine what our world would be like.

Sources

Dr. Lal (2019), Chandragupta Maurya

Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Alexander (published in Vol. VII
of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1919)

The Political Ethics of Chanakya. (2022). India: FINGERPRINT PUB.

The Divyavadana: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends. (1970). Netherlands: Oriental Press.

Mishra (2023), The Relevance of Chanakya’s Teachings in the Modern Era

Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. (1988). India: Motilal Banarsidass.

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