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Throughout history, numerous formidable empires have risen and fallen, leaving lasting impacts on human civilization. While some, like the Roman Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Han Dynasty, and Ottoman Empire, are well-documented and widely recognized, others remain overlooked. We must give equal attention to these lesser-known empires, acknowledging their remarkable achievements and incorporating them into our global educational curriculum to foster a more comprehensive understanding of world history.

The demise of Alexander the Great’s empire in 321 BCE marked the beginning of a tumultuous 40-year period, but also paved the way for a new power to emerge in the Indian subcontinent. The Maurya Empire, which spanned much of modern-day India and parts of Iran, would go on to achieve remarkable success in maintaining peace and political stability across vast swathes of Asia. Notably, the Maurya Empire established a unified economic system, fostering stable agriculture, trade, and commerce that would become a hallmark of its enduring legacy.

While the Mauryan empire may not have achieved the same level of renown as Alexander the Great’s empire, it can be argued that it was home to one of the most remarkable civilizations in history. What sets the Maurya empire apart, however, is that it transcended its founders, taking on a life of its own and enduring long after its initial rulers had passed on. Chandragupta Maurya established the Maurya empire in 321 BCE. Few facts are known about Chandragupta’s life before he became king, but many legends and stories tell about his rise to power, giving us a glimpse into the life of the empire’s mysterious founder.

Chandragupta Maurya 

Chandragupta Maurya’s life and origins remain shrouded in mystery. Most information about him comes from legends and folklore rather than reliable historical sources. As Indian historian K.A. Sastri notes, Chandragupta is only mentioned in the Junagarh inscription of the 2nd century CE (Singh, 330). Sastri further observes:

“For details of the momentous events that led to the supersession of the Nandas by the Mauryas, we must turn to Indian chroniclers and storytellers. No contemporary account has survived. The traditional story is told differently by different writers.” (Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, K.A. Sastri, 145)

The scarcity of primary sources has led to diverse and sometimes conflicting accounts of Chandragupta’s life and ascent to power. Historians must carefully synthesize a narrative from fragmented and often contradictory sources. Furthermore, Chandragupta’s social background, particularly his caste, remains a topic of ongoing debate. Buddhist, Jain, and ancient literary works offer varying versions of his story, underscoring the complexity and nuance of reconstructing his life and legacy.

Chandragupta Maurya was born in 340 BC in present-day Bihar, India. He ascended to the throne in 321 BC, marking the beginning of the Mauryan empire. Historians offer varying accounts of his early life. Some suggest that he was the son of a chief, whose family fell into poverty after his father’s death. Chandragupta’s lineage is described differently across sources, with some claiming he was a member of the Kshatriya Moriya clan, rulers of Pipphalivana on the Indo-Nepal border, while others describe him as a descendant of a tribe of peacock-tamers, the son of a woman named Mura, hence the title Maurya, or possibly related to the Nandas. According to one account, Chandragupta was expelled from his land by Dhanananda, who was envious of his exceptional abilities.

Historians are divided on Chandragupta’s social origins. While some recommend that he came from a humble background, describing him as a “commoner without any direct claim to the crown of Magadha,” others argue that he was, in fact, a member of the Moriya or Maurya clan, which had fallen on hard times by the 4th century BCE. According to this perspective, Chandragupta grew up in a rustic environment, surrounded by “peacock-tamers, herdsmen, and hunters.”

The Roman historian Justin, writing in the 2nd century CE, describes Chandragupta’s humble beginnings. In contrast, Buddhist texts and medieval inscriptions refer to him as a kshatriya, a member of the ruler/warrior caste. This discrepancy suggests that Chandragupta may have belonged to the kshatriya caste or a related caste. Notably, the Brahmin scholar Kautilya, who adhered to traditional caste rules, likely would not have supported Chandragupta unless he had an acceptable caste status.

Chandragupta’s Early Beginnings with his mentor Chanakya

Chandragupta’s ambition and desire for power were likely fuelled by his humble beginnings. He sought to restore his clan’s fortunes and reclaim his rightful position as a Kshatriya ruler. His early life took a significant turn when he worked as a cattle-herder, first for his maternal uncles and later as a hunter. The fate of Chandragupta was significantly influenced by a fortuitous encounter with Chanakya. There was a time when Chanakya saw Chandragupta’s potential and helped him become great by teaching him important skills.

The circumstances of Chandragupta’s birth remain shrouded in mystery, with various theories surrounding his parentage. Historians propose different origins, including being the illegitimate son of a Nanda Dynasty prince or king, or being from the Moriya warrior clan. Chandragupta’s potential as a leader became increasingly evident, and Chanakya recognized his qualities. Chanakya imparted his knowledge of politics, finance, and warfare to Chandragupta, emphasizing humility and ethical conduct.

Chandragupta prepared for military conquests, acquiring training and experience. Notably, the Maurya Empire’s expansion coincided with Alexander the Great’s death. Greek and Latin historians suggest Chandragupta may have met Alexander, possibly joining his army and gaining knowledge of Macedonian warfare tactics. However, according to Plutarch’s “Life of Alexander,” the meeting between Chandragupta (referred to as Androcottus) and Alexander did not go as planned. Chandragupta perceived Alexander as oppressive, prompting Alexander to order his execution. Chandragupta fled for his life. Some historians question this account, proposing Chandragupta may have actually encountered Dhana Nanda, the ruler of the Nanda dynasty.

Chanakya played a pivotal role in shaping Chandragupta’s career and the Mauryan Empire. Driven by a desire to revamp the Indian political system, Chanakya sought to create a centralized pan-Indian empire. His experiences at Takshashila exposed him to the turmoil triggered by the Macedonian invasion, spurring him to envision an empire that would unify fragmented kingdoms and republics, providing strong defence and restoring order.

Chanakya identified Magadha as the ideal location for his proposed empire due to its military capabilities and stability. However, Dhanananda, the ruler of Magadha, opposed Chanakya’s plans. Chanakya decided to eliminate Dhanananda and chose Chandragupta Maurya as his replacement. Under Chanakya’s guidance, Chandragupta received intense training, honing his military, diplomatic, and clandestine operations abilities. In the end, Chandragupta was able to take control of things.

The battle for supremacy in India

Historians agree that Chandragupta Maurya was a natural leader, renowned for his charisma and fortitude. Chanakya, a Brahmin scholar, recognized Chandragupta’s potential and nurtured his aspirations for greatness. As Alexander the Great’s influence waned, Chandragupta seized the opportunity to expand his territory. With his authority established, he focused on extending his empire. The Mauryan armies marched towards the Indian Ocean and southern India.

According to Plutarch, Chandragupta commanded an impressive army of 600,000. The Mauryan empire encompassed present-day Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, western and north-western India, and the Deccan. The death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE created a power vacuum, which Chandragupta capitalized on with his charisma and leadership. He expanded into the Punjab region and assumed rule in 322 BCE, marking the beginning of his dominance.

Chandragupta assembled a formidable army and forged an alliance with King Porus, who had fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BCE. His conquest of the Magadha heartland was a pivotal moment in Indian history. With King Porus’ backing, Chandragupta’s forces marched towards Magadha to overthrow the Nanda Empire. Recognizing that military strength alone wouldn’t suffice, Chandragupta employed cunning tactics to weaken Dhana Nanda’s rule. He dismantled Dhana Nanda’s support network, removing key allies and officials.

The Sanskrit drama “Mudrarakshasa” provides a vivid account of these events. Chandragupta’s strategic manoeuvring led to the successful seizure of Pataliputra, the Nanda capital, in 321 BCE. Dhana Nanda’s fate remains uncertain, with accounts suggesting he may have either escaped or been killed.

At 20, Chandragupta Maurya founded his kingdom, marking the beginning of the Maurya Empire. After his initial victory, he maintained power through efficient administration and established a Secret Service to eliminate remaining Nanda loyalists. Chandragupta expanded his empire through strategic acquisitions, using force or forming alliances as needed. His expansion led to a clash with the Persian Empire, ruled by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals. The objective of the conflict was to ensure the Mauryan Empire’s autonomy and constrain Greek power. With the signing of a peace treaty in 303 BCE, Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 elephants in return for three territories: Paropamisadai (the area between Afghanistan and India), Gedrosia (southern Pakistan), and Arachosia (near modern-day Kandahar, Afghanistan).

Although lacking historical evidence, legend suggests Seleucus may have strengthened ties with Chandragupta by offering his daughter Helena in marriage. The Mauryan and Greek nations established diplomatic relations, facilitating cultural exchange. Greek ambassadors, including historian Megasthenes, introduced the Maurya Empire to various literary works, including Greek texts. Notable literary works providing insights into the Maurya Empire include Megasthenes’ Indika, Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa, Chanakya’s Arthashastra, the Puranas, and numerous Buddhist texts. 

How the Mauryan Empire performed under Chandragupta

Chandragupta’s reign saw the establishment of a sophisticated imperial administration. He oversaw most imperial affairs, assisted by a council of ministers. The empire was divided into provinces, each governed by princes serving as viceroys. This system allowed royal family members to gain administrative experience. Provinces were subdivided into smaller units, with separate arrangements for urban and rural administration. Archaeological evidence confirms the existence of several towns and cities, including the capital city of Pataliputra. Pataliputra’s administration was overseen by six committees, each comprising five members, responsible for maintaining sanitation, caring for foreigners, registering births and deaths, and regulating weights and measures.

The central government comprised around two dozen departments, overseeing social and economic activities. The Mauryan Empire’s military was a force to be reckoned with, thanks to Chandragupta’s leadership. The empire systematically recruited, trained, and equipped troops, tapping into the expertise of forest tribes and communities. The army was divided into four branches: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants. A 30-member war office oversaw the navy and transport department. According to Pliny the Elder, Chandragupta’s military might included 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 8,000 chariots.

Commanders strategically deployed forces based on terrain and enemy composition. The king and princes were well-versed in battle and leadership, often leading armies personally. The navy served as a coast guard, safeguarding trade on the empire’s waterways. The Mauryan warriors employed various weapons, including bows, swords, shields, javelins, lances, axes, pikes, clubs, and maces. Their training was rigorous, ensuring effectiveness in battle.

Mauryan soldiers wore minimal attire, including bare chests, cotton jackets, and turbans. They also wore cloth bands around their waists and chests as shields. During winter, tunics were worn, and their lower garment was a loose cloth worn as a kilt. The Mauryan Empire’s massive military was facilitated by its vast size and resources. The state controlled economic activities, generating substantial revenue streams. The Arthashastra is a lasting tribute to Chandragupta. He overcame obstacles to establish a formidable empire, laying down guidelines for its management and dedicating himself to its expansion. This cemented his place as one of ancient India’s greatest rulers.

Chandragupta’s reign ended in 297 BCE, but his impact on India was lasting. At his death, India was largely united, with the Mauryan Empire spanning from the Himalayas to the Vindhya mountains. He prioritized his people’s well-being, treating everyone equally and earning widespread respect. It is unknown what caused Chandragupta’s death, but his fasting may have caused him to starve to death. According to the Digambara legend, Chandragupta spent his final years as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola.

Chandragupta’s achievements were remarkable, thanks in part to his mentor and advisor, Chanakya. After Chandragupta’s demise, his son Bindusara assumed the throne, inheriting a stable kingdom. Bindusara expanded the empire, earning the Greek name “Amitrochates,” meaning “Slayer of all enemies.” At the peak of the empire was Bindusara’s son Ashoka. He was such a great leader that people called him “the Great” for promoting peace and kindness. After Bindusara’s death, Ashoka emerged victorious from a succession struggle, assuming the Maurya Empire throne around 265-268 BCE.

Ashoka the Great

Eight years after assuming power, Ashoka began a violent expansion of the empire, making the Mauryas the largest geographical area in the world. His most successful operation was against the island nation of Kalinga, resulting in 100,000 to 300,000 deaths. The conquest’s brutality left Ashoka in deep mourning, damaging his reputation and the Mauryan Empire’s stature. He pledged never to employ force again, vowing to prevent further bloodshed.

As time passed, Ashoka remained true to his declaration and abstained from any form of violence, eventually becoming a patron of Buddhism. His support for the Buddhist faith was instrumental in facilitating the spread and expansion of Buddhism throughout India.  Ashoka renounced military conquest in the end, opting instead for a policy he called “conquest by dharma,” a religious and moral code based on generosity, non-violence, and truthfulness. Besides communicating his intentions verbally, Ashoka also etched them into stone. To raise public awareness of his actions and words, he crafted drawings on rocks and pillars that depicted his thoughts and actions during his tenure in power.  

One of Ashoka’s most renowned pillars can still be observed at Sarnath, which is widely believed to be the location of Buddha’s first sermon concerning the four noble truths. The pillar remains in its original position. The top section of the column, which has since become the national symbol of India, is on display at the Sarnath Museum. 

Ashoka embraced diversity in faith and allowed his people to live and worship as they pleased.  Even though he encouraged people to work hard to improve their inner worthiness, he kept a high level of respect for others and didn’t criticize other points of view. His main rules were to be honest, kind, and helpful.  He embraced a policy of non-violence, and he established hospitals for both humans and animals.

Public infrastructure and the inherent value of public spaces were underscored by Ashoka. He directed the planting of trees and groves along the roadside, the excavation of wells, and the construction of rest houses and watering sheds. Ashoka travelled extensively, spreading the message of dharma and helping rural communities. He instructed his staff to consider the unique needs of women and those in less populated areas, and to engage with the public directly.

His famous quote, “All men are my children, and as for my children, I wish that they may be provided with all the welfare and happiness of this world and the next, so do I wish for all men as well” will go down in history as one of the most scintillating motivational quotes.

Ashoka ruled for nearly 40 years before passing away in 238 BCE, marking the beginning of the end for the Maurya Empire.

The fall of the Maurya Empire

After Ashoka’s death, the Maurya Empire declined due to persistent invasions and internal conflicts, eventually shrinking and fading into historical obscurity. According to reports, Ashoka’s son Kunala ruled Gandhara and his great-grandson Dasharatha ruled Magadha, dividing the empire into two halves. The Maurya Empire ended in 185 BCE when Brihadratha, the last emperor, was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga. Pushyamitra Shunga, a devout Brahmin, disapproved of Brihadratha’s rule. Ashoka’s descendants remained committed to Buddhism and non-violence, which led to repeated invasions by foreign forces, ultimately weakening the empire.

During Brihadratha’s reign, Buddhism was gaining popularity, replacing the Vedic Religion. Pushyamitra, a devout follower of the Vedic Religion, disapproved of this shift. When the Greeks invaded, Brihadratha refused to fight, but Pushyamitra defied the king’s orders and launched an attack on both the Greeks and Buddhists.

Pushyamitra executed 300 Greeks and brought the Buddhists before Brihadratha, expecting praise. Instead, Brihadratha expelled Pushyamitra from the court. Following a heated debate, Pushyamitra killed Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king, and declared himself king. However, the Buddhist text Divyavadana incorrectly claims that Pushyamitra was the last Mauryan king, likely confusing him with Brihadratha. Pushyamitra and his army established the Shunga Empire, reclaiming many kingdoms that were once part of the Maurya Empire.

The Maurya Empire’s culture of non-violence, set by Ashoka, was a double-edged sword. While it brought peace and prosperity, it also made the empire vulnerable to external threats. Surrounding kingdoms and foreigners took advantage of the empire’s peaceful attitude, leading to its decline. Ashoka’s legacy serves as a powerful reminder of the importance of compassion and non-violence. If today’s leaders followed his example, the world would likely be a more peaceful and harmonious place.

Sources

Chandragupta Maurya (as cited in Plutarch, 1919). The Parallel Lives, The Life of Alexander (Vol. VII, Loeb Classical Library edition).

Dr. Lal, B. (2019). Chandragupta Maurya.

Mishra, [Initials]. (2023). The Relevance of Chanakya’s Teachings in the Modern Era.

The Divyavadana: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends. (1970). Netherlands: Oriental Press.

The Political Ethics of Chanakya. (2022). India: FINGERPRINT PUB.

Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. (1988). India: Motilal Banarsidass.